If you have been reading about intranasal delivery and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2025-12-16. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
Pharmacokinetic accounts emphasize rapid breakdown. After intravenous dosing the intact peptide disappears from blood within minutes, and nasal delivery produces low but measurable concentrations. Metabolites rather than the parent molecule may account for part of the observed activity, although the relative contribution is unresolved. Dosing in the literature varies widely and no optimal schedule has been agreed. These gaps are regularly cited as a reason the findings have not produced broad clinical adoption beyond the original research setting.
Proposed mechanisms center on neurotrophic signaling rather than on classical melanocortin receptor activation. Rodent experiments have reported shifts in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor after administration, together with changes in the associated receptor systems. Several authors argue that the peptide acts largely through its degradation products and their interaction with peptidergic pathways, but this remains a hypothesis rather than a settled finding. No single molecular target has been identified in a way that the field broadly accepts.
Published research covers ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, cognitive impairment, optic nerve conditions and attention-related measures. Much of the human evidence comes from small trials conducted in one country, which limits how far the results generalize. Animal models supply the larger share of the data, and effects seen in rodents do not transfer automatically to people. Reviews have noted that methodological reporting is often incomplete, making it difficult to pool results or compare treatment schedules across studies.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S | Calculated for the free peptide |
| Molar mass | 813.9 g/mol | Anhydrous free base |
| Peptide class | Synthetic heptapeptide | ACTH(4-10) analogue |
| Parent fragment | ACTH(4-10) | Adrenocorticotropic hormone segment |
| Developmental origin | Institute of Molecular Genetics, Moscow | Work began in the 1980s |
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
Verification of a supplied batch generally combines a certificate of analysis with independent testing, because certificates are self-reported documents. A typical package includes a chromatographic trace, a mass spectrum, and a stated water or counter-ion content. Batch-to-batch consistency matters more than a single purity figure when results are compared across experiments. No single mandatory standard governs research-grade peptide release, so laboratories are expected to define their own acceptance criteria. Residual trifluoroacetate from purification is a frequently overlooked counter-ion.
Lyophilized material is chemically stable for extended periods when kept dry, cold, and protected from light. The powder is hygroscopic, so vials should be warmed to room temperature before opening to reduce condensation on the contents. Once dissolved, the peptide is far less stable because peptide bonds are susceptible to hydrolysis and the methionine residue can oxidize. Solutions are typically aliquoted and held at 2-8 °C for short intervals or frozen for longer ones, and repeated freeze-thaw cycles should be avoided.
The optical lens has been playing a critical role in almost all areas of science and technology since its invention about 3000 years ago. With the advances in micro- and nanofabrication techniques, continued miniaturization of the conventional optical lenses has always been requested for various applications such as communications, sensors, data storage and a wide range of other technology-driven and consumer-driven industries. Specifically, ever smaller sizes, as well as thinner thicknesses of micro lenses, are highly needed for subwavelength optics or nano-optics with extremely small structures, particularly for visible and near-IR applications. Also, as the distance scale for optical communications shrinks, the required feature sizes of micro lenses are rapidly pushed down. Recently, the excellent properties of newly discovered graphene oxide provide novel solutions to overcome the challenges of current planar focusing devices. Specifically, giant refractive index modification (as large as 10^-1), which is one order of magnitude larger than the current materials, between graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) have been demonstrated by dynamically manipulating its oxygen content using the direct laser writing (DLW) method. As a result, the overall lens thickness can be potentially reduced by more than ten times. Also, the linear optical absorption of GO is found to increase as the reduction of GO deepens, which results in transmission contrast between GO and rGO and therefore provides an amplitude modulation mechanism.
Another saRNA therapeutic, RAG-01, developed by Ractigen Therapeutics, is being investigated for the treatment of non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) and has shown promising early complete responses (CRs) in Phase I trial for BCG-unresponsive patients. saRNAs represent a significant advancement in RNA therapeutics, expanding the scope of RNA-based therapies to include gene activation in addition to gene silencing.
Molybdenum, despite its low concentration in the environment, is a critically important element for Earth's biosphere due to its presence in the most common nitrogenases. Without molybdenum, nitrogen fixation would be greatly reduced, and a large part of biosynthesis as we know it would not occur. Molybdenum is also essential to many individual organisms as a component of enzymes, particularly as part of the molybdopterin class of cofactors.
Increasing the Mg2+ concentration leads to an increase in the equilibrium constants for the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases' reactions. Although this trend was seen in both class I and class II synthetases, the magnesium dependence for the two classes are very distinct. Class II synthetases have two or (more frequently) three Mg2+ ions, while class I only requires one Mg2+ ion. Beside their lack of overall sequence and structure similarity, class I and class II synthetases feature different ATP recognition mechanisms. While class I binds via interactions mediated by backbone hydrogen bonds, class II uses a pair of arginine residues to establish salt bridges to its ATP ligand. This oppositional implementation is manifested in two structural motifs, the Backbone Brackets and Arginine Tweezers, which are observable in all class I and class II structures, respectively. The high structural conservation of these motifs suggest that they must have been present since ancient times.
Bryant Park contains a Beaux-Arts granite restroom structure on the northern border, along 42nd Street. There are two facilities, one for men and women, both of which are 315 square feet (29.3 m2). These were built in 1911 along with the NYPL Main Branch, but due to the park's landmark status, they cannot be expanded. The exterior of each building contains a frieze with garland motifs. After being closed in the mid-1960s, they were restored by Kupiec & Koutsomitis and reopened in 1992. The restrooms have been described as being among the city's best. A subsequent renovation in 2006 solidified their status as, in the words of then-New York City Parks Commissioner Adrian Benepe, "the gold standard for park comfort stations." The restrooms were renovated again in 2017. Following the 2017 renovation, the restrooms contained rotating artworks selected from a collection of 225 works, as well as fresh flowers, classical music, attendants, and automatic toilets and faucets.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Control == Some cultural practices are effective in managing this disease. Cultural methods include antibacterial management, sanitation, removal of infected plants, frequent scouting, and most importantly, crisis declaration. Tracking the disease can help prevent further infection in other affected areas and help mitigate more local infections, if detected early enough. The Asian citrus psyllid has alternative hosts that may attract psyllids to citrus plants in the vicinity such as Murraya paniculata, Severinia buxifolia, and other plants in the family Rutaceae. No cure for citrus greening disease is known, and efforts to control it have been slow because infected citrus plants are difficult to maintain, regenerate, and study. Ongoing challenges associated with mitigating disease at the field-scale include seasonality of the phytopathogen (Liberibacter spp.) and associated disease symptoms, limitations for therapeutics to contact the phytopathogen in planta, adverse impacts of broad-spectrum treatments on plant-beneficial microbiota, and potential implications on public and ecosystem health. The effort to culture Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (CLas) has been a significant challenge in plant pathology. Progress has included culturing a different species of Liberibacter. No naturally immune citrus cultivars have been identified. Creating genetically modified citrus may be a possible solution, but questions of its acceptability to consumers exist.
=== Celiac disease === Since the consumption of gluten is suppressed or reduced with a low-FODMAP diet, the improvement of the digestive symptoms with this diet may not be related to the withdrawal of the FODMAPs, but of gluten, indicating the presence of an unrecognized celiac disease, avoiding its diagnosis and correct treatment, with the consequent risk of several serious health complications, including various types of cancer.
Premier League: 1997–98, 2001–02, 2003–04 FA Cup: 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2016–17; runner-up: 2000–01 FA Charity/Community Shield: 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2014, 2015 2017 Football League/EFL Cup runner-up: 2006–07, 2010–11, 2017–18 UEFA Champions League runner-up: 2005–06 UEFA Cup runner-up: 1999–2000 Individual
1955: the Mexican League, previously independent, was classified as Double-A 1961: final season of the Southern Association 1963: the Eastern League and original South Atlantic League were moved from Class A to Double-A 1964: the original South Atlantic League was reconstituted as the Southern League 1967: the Mexican League moved to Triple-A Entering the 2020 minor league season (which was not played, due to the COVID-19 pandemic) the Texas League had been in Double-A since 1946, the Eastern League since 1963, and the Southern League since 1964. Prior to the 2021 season, Major League Baseball (MLB) reorganized the minor leagues. At that time, the existing leagues were temporarily renamed: Eastern League as Double-A Northeast, Southern League as Double-A South, and Texas League as Double-A Central. Following MLB's acquisition of the rights to the names of the historical minor leagues, MLB announced on March 16, 2022, that the leagues would revert to their prior names, effective with the 2022 season.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Semax is based on the ACTH(4-10) fragment, a seven-amino-acid segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. The synthetic peptide retains the core sequence while removing regions associated with endocrine activity. This modification is intended to isolate effects on the nervous system.
It is registered for clinical use in Russia and a few other countries, typically as a nasal drop formulation. It does not hold approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency. Outside those markets it is generally handled as a research chemical.
The compound was developed in Moscow and the earliest studies were conducted there, so the primary literature is largely in Russian-language journals. Translation and indexing have been incomplete, which limits access for outside researchers. Independent groups have since published some work, but the total volume remains modest.
The main proposal is modulation of neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor, supported largely by animal experiments. Receptor-level targets have not been firmly established. Most reviews describe the mechanism as only partially characterized.