ACTH fragment is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Updated 2026-03-07. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
Development of the compound took place in the Soviet Union during the 1980s, largely through peptide research groups affiliated with the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute and Moscow State University. Investigators screened fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone for activity on the central nervous system while attempting to separate cognitive effects from hormonal ones. The shortened sequence was selected because it retained behavioral activity in animal models without stimulating corticosteroid release. Early publications described the molecule as an ACTH(4-10) analog.
The compound was developed during the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow as part of research on fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Early work examined short ACTH-derived sequences that retained neurotrophic effects while lacking the endocrine activity of the full hormone. Semax entered clinical use in Russia during the 1990s, where it received registration for several neurological indications. Outside that region it remained primarily a laboratory research material rather than an approved therapeutic. English-language literature on it grew more slowly and frequently cited the original Russian studies.
Terminology around the compound varies by source. It appears in catalogues and papers as Semax, as the heptapeptide ACTH(4-7)-Pro-Gly-Pro, and under various alphanumeric laboratory codes used by individual suppliers. These names refer to the same sequence but may imply different salt forms, purity grades, or counter-ions. Peptide databases usually list the free base mass, while product descriptions sometimes report acetate or trifluoroacetate salts with a different formula weight. Because naming conventions for research peptides are not standardised across vendors, checking the declared sequence and measured mass is more reliable than relying on a trade name alone.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S | Seven-residue peptide |
| Molecular mass | 813.9 Da | Monoisotopic value |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Lyophilized form |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Also soluble in saline and polar solvents |
| Storage (dry) | -20 °C or lower | Desiccated, protected from light |
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
Clinical evidence consists largely of small trials with modest sample sizes, often without independent replication. Reported endpoints include cognitive scores, recovery after stroke, and visual function, but study designs vary widely and few trials meet contemporary reporting standards. Systematic reviewers have noted a high risk of bias in several of these reports. No large multicenter trial conducted outside Russia has been published. The compound is therefore best described as investigational in most jurisdictions, with its clinical role still unresolved.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its chain combines the first seven residues of corticotropin with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline extension, a modification intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The free peptide has a molecular mass near 813.9 daltons. It belongs to the class of ACTH-derived fragments studied for central nervous system activity rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. This structural relationship to a natural hormone fragment is the usual starting point for describing the compound in the literature.
Laboratory descriptions of the material are consistent across suppliers. It appears as a white to off-white lyophilized powder that dissolves readily in water and in polar organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide. Aqueous solutions are clear and colorless at low concentrations. Because the peptide contains methionine, oxidation at the sulfur atom is a recognized degradation pathway, and handling notes usually call for protected, desiccated storage. Reported purity for research-grade lots is generally above 95 percent as measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
The compound is registered in Russia as a pharmaceutical product, most commonly formulated as a nasal solution, and has been used in that setting since the 1990s. Outside that jurisdiction it is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Regulatory status therefore differs sharply between countries, and material sold internationally may not correspond to the Russian pharmaceutical formulation. Documentation with commercial samples is typically limited to a certificate of analysis covering purity and identity, not clinical status or local legal classification.
In October 2019, GSK agreed to sell its rabies vaccine, RabAvert, and its tick-borne encephalitis vaccine, Encepur, to Bavarian Nordic for US$1.06 billion (€955 million). In July 2020, GSK acquired a 10% stake in German biotech company CureVac.
== Medical uses == Tirzepatide (as Mounjaro) is indicated as an adjunct to diet and exercise to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes. Tirzepatide (as Zepbound) is indicated, alongside a reduced-calorie diet and increased physical activity, for long-term weight reduction in adults with obesity or overweight with at least one weight-related comorbidity. Zepbound is also approved for the treatment of moderate-to-severe obstructive sleep apnea in adults with obesity. Within a year after stopping treatment with tirzepatide for obesity, on average, patients regain more than half the weight they lost during treatment, often returning to their previous weight within a year and a half.
== Disadvantages == The Bradford assay is linear over a short range, typically from 0 μg/mL to 2000 μg/mL, often making dilutions of a sample necessary before analysis. In making these dilutions, error in one dilution is compounded in further dilutions resulting in a linear relationship that may not always be accurate. Basic conditions and detergents, such as SDS, can interfere with the dye's ability to bind to the protein through its side chains. The reagents in this method tend to stain the test tubes. Same test tubes cannot be used since the stain would affect the absorbance reading. This method is also time sensitive. When more than one solution is tested, it is important to make sure every sample is incubated for the same amount of time for accurate comparison. A limiting factor in using Coomassie-based protein determination dyes stems from the significant variation in color yield observed across different proteins This limiting factor is notably evident in collagen-rich protein samples, like pancreatic extracts, where both the Lowry and Bradford methods tend to underestimate protein content. It is also inhibited by the presence of detergents, although this problem can be alleviated by the addition of cyclodextrins to the assay mixture. Much of the non-linearity stems from the equilibrium between two different forms of the dye which is perturbed by adding the protein. The Bradford assay linearizes by measuring the ratio of the absorbances, 595 over 450 nm. This modified Bradford assay is approximately 10 times more sensitive than the conventional one.
Infants can be infected during passage through the birth canal; nevertheless, newborns who acquire GBS through this route may only become colonized, and these colonized infants typically do not develop EOD. Roughly 50% of newborns to GBS colonized mothers are also GBS colonized, and (without prevention measures) 1–2% of these newborns will develop EOD. In the past, the incidence of EOD ranged from 0.7 to 3.7 per thousand live births in the US and from 0.2 to 3.25 per thousand in Europe.Multistate surveillance 2006-2015 shows a decline in EOD from 0.37 to 0.23 per 1000 live births in the US, but LOD remains steady at 0.31 per 1000 live births. In 2021 had been estimated a total of 1970 deaths (0.59/100,000 population) in the US were estimated to be caused by GBS neonatal infections. It was estimated that 226 infants (49 per 100,000) in the United States had a clinically significant GBS infection, and that approximately 11 (2.4%) of those cases resulted in death. The widespread use of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis (IAP) has resulted in a decline in the incidence of early neonatal GBS infection in the United States of more than 85%, from 1.8‰ of cases in live births in the 1990s to 0.23‰ in 2015, and to 0.18‰ in 2023.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Europe === Records of the Dutch East India Company list soy sauce as a commodity in 1737, when seventy-five large barrels were shipped from Dejima, Japan, to Batavia (present-day Jakarta) on the island of Java. Thirty-five barrels from that shipment were then shipped to the Netherlands. In the 18th century, diplomat and scholar Isaac Titsingh published accounts of brewing soy sauce. Although earlier descriptions of soy sauce had been disseminated in the West, his was among the earliest to focus specifically on the brewing of the Japanese version. By the mid-19th century, Japanese soy sauce gradually disappeared from the European market, and the condiment became synonymous with the Chinese product. Europeans were unable to make soy sauce because they did not have access to Aspergillus oryzae, the fungus used in its brewing. Soy sauce made from ingredients such as portobello mushrooms were disseminated in European cookbooks during the late 18th century. A Swedish recipe for "Soija" was published in the 1770 edition of Cajsa Warg's Hjelpreda i Hushållningen för Unga Fruentimber and was flavored with allspice and mace.
In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions and ports in China, including Shanghai, in exchange for Chinese troops withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region starting in March 1946. This left the VNQDĐ without support, and they were suppressed by Việt Minh and French troops. The Việt Minh massacred thousands of VNQDĐ members and other nationalists in a large-scale purge.
== Development == For over 150 years, scientists from all around the world have known about the crystallization of protein molecules. In 1840, Friedrich Ludwig Hünefeld accidentally discovered the formation of crystalline material in samples of earthworm blood held under two glass slides and occasionally observed small plate-like crystals in desiccated swine or human blood samples. These crystals were named as 'haemoglobin', by Felix Hoppe-Seyler in 1864. The seminal findings of Hünefeld inspired many scientists in the future. In 1851, Otto Funke described the process of producing human haemoglobin crystals by diluting red blood cells with solvents, such as pure water, alcohol or ether, followed by slow evaporation of the solvent from the protein solution. In 1871, William T. Preyer, Professor at University of Jena, published a book entitled Die Blutkrystalle (The Crystals of Blood), reviewing the features of haemoglobin crystals from around 50 species of mammals, birds, reptiles and fishes. These early approaches relied on simple evaporation techniques and worked mainly with naturally abundant proteins such as hemoglobin. In 1909, the physiologist Edward T. Reichert, together with the mineralogist Amos P. Brown, published a treatise on the preparation, physiology and geometrical characterization of hemeoglobin crystals from several hundreds animals, including extinct species such as the Tasmanian wolf. Increasing protein crystals were found.
Mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) deficiency or resistance can also cause hyperkalemia. Primary adrenal insufficiency are: Addison's disease and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) (including enzyme deficiencies such as 21α hydroxylase, 17α hydroxylase, 11β hydroxylase, or 3β dehydrogenase).
=== Former members === Free Territory of Trieste The Free Territory of Trieste (Zone A) was a member of the OEEC until 1954, when it merged with Italy and ceased to exist as an independent territorial entity.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Glutathione S-transferase A2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the GSTA2 gene. Cytosolic and membrane-bound forms of glutathione S-transferase are encoded by two distinct supergene families. These enzymes function in the detoxification of electrophilic compounds, including carcinogens, therapeutic drugs, environmental toxins and products of oxidative stress, by conjugation with glutathione. The genes encoding these enzymes are known to be highly polymorphic. These genetic variations can change an individual's susceptibility to carcinogens and toxins as well as affect the toxicity and efficacy of some drugs. At present, eight distinct classes of the soluble cytoplasmic mammalian glutathione S-transferases have been identified: alpha, kappa, mu, omega, pi, sigma, theta and zeta. This gene encodes a glutathione S-transferase belonging to the alpha class. The alpha class genes, located in a cluster mapped to chromosome 6, are the most abundantly expressed glutathione S-transferases in liver. In addition to metabolizing bilirubin and certain anti-cancer drugs in the liver, the alpha class of these enzymes exhibit glutathione peroxidase activity thereby protecting the cells from reactive oxygen species and the products of peroxidation.
=== Biostructural === The enzymatic chemistry involved in the formation of isopeptides for structural purposes is different from the case of ubiquitin and ubiquitin related proteins. In that, instead of sequential steps involving multiple enzymes to activate, conjugate and target the substrate. The catalysis is performed by one enzyme and the only precursor step, if there is one, is generally cleavage to activate it from a zymogen. However, the uniformity that exists in the ubiquitin's case is not so here, as there are numerous different enzymes all performing the reaction of forming the isopeptide bond. The first case is that of the sortases, an enzyme family that is spread throughout numerous gram positive bacteria. It has been shown to be an important pathogenicity and virulence factor. The general reaction performed by sortases involves using its own brand of the 'catalytic triad': i.e. using histidine, arginine, and cysteine for the reactive mechanism. His and Arg act to help create the reactive environment, and Cys once again acts as the reaction center by using a thioester help hold a carboxyl group until the amine of a Lysine can perform a nucleophilic attack to transfer the protein and form the isopeptide bond. An ion that can sometimes play an important although indirect role in the enzymatic reaction is calcium, which is bound by sortase. It plays an important role in holding the structure of the enzyme in the optimal conformation for catalysis. However, there are cases where calcium has been shown to be non-essential for catalysis to take place.
== Etymology == The word slave was borrowed into Middle English through the Old French esclave which ultimately derives from Byzantine Greek σκλάβος (sklábos) or ἐσκλαβῆνος (esklabḗnos). According to the widespread view, which has been known since the 18th century, the Byzantine Σκλάβινοι (Sklábinoi), Ἐσκλαβηνοί (Esklabēnoí), borrowed from a Slavic tribe self-name *Slověne, turned into σκλάβος, ἐσκλαβῆνος (Late Latin sclāvus) in the meaning 'prisoner of war slave', 'slave' in the 8th/9th century, because they often became captured and enslaved. However this version has been disputed since the 19th century. An alternative contemporary hypothesis suggests that Medieval Latin sclāvus via *scylāvus derives from Byzantine σκυλάω (skūláō, skyláō) or σκυλεύω (skūleúō, skyleúō) with the meaning "to strip the enemy (killed in a battle)" or "to make booty / extract spoils of war". This version has been criticized as well.
== Aging == Thailand in 2012 ranked number three of 66 nations with the most rapidly aging populations (1=most rapidly aging, 66=least rapidly aging). The Global AgeWatch Index for 2015 ranked Thailand 34 of 96 nations (1=best, 96=worst). The AgeWatch Index purports to measure "...how well...aging populations are faring."
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a synthetic peptide of seven amino acids. Its backbone corresponds to a fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone extended at the carboxyl end. The material is distributed as a lyophilized solid for laboratory use.
The extension was introduced to slow enzymatic breakdown of the peptide in biological systems. Natural ACTH fragments are degraded rapidly by peptidases. Adding the tripeptide was intended to extend the window during which the molecule remains intact.
Most published work consists of animal experiments conducted in a small number of laboratories. Human data are limited in number and size. Whether the observed effects translate into reliable clinical benefit is still unresolved.
It is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide built from the ACTH(4-7) sequence plus a Pro-Gly-Pro tail. It belongs to the family of short ACTH fragments studied for nervous-system effects. Its backbone contains only standard amino acids.